Balanced Discourses: A Bilingual Edition - Hardcover

Xu, Gan; Makeham, John

Hardcover

ISBN 10: 0300092016 ISBN 13: 9780300092011

Publisher: Yale University Press, 2002

Synopsis

Written by the Han philosopher Xu Gan (A.D. 170–217), Balanced Discourses is an inquiry into the causes of political breakdown. It provides a unique contemporary account of the social, intellectual, and cosmological factors that Xu Gan identified as having precipitated the demise of the Han order. This edition of Zhonglun (or Balanced Discourses) contains the original Chinese text with annotations and, on facing pages, an English translation also accompanied by annotations.

This collection of essays spans a range of topics, from Confucian cultivation to calendrical calculation. Xu’s perspectives are of not only historical but also philosophical interest, for they reveal his belief in a special correlative bond that should exist between names and actualities and his understanding of what happens when that bond is broken. The translator, John Makeham, argues in his introduction that the essays display the same quality of balance that Xu Gan sees as essential to social and political equilibrium.

About this title

About the Author

John Makeham is senior lecturer in Chinese, University of Adelaide. Dang Shengyuan is a senior Chinese scholar.

From the Back Cover

"A judicious and eminently readable translation of an important work." Wai-yee Li, Harvard University

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.

Balanced Discourses

A Bilingual EditionBy Xu Gan

Yale University Press

Copyright © 2002 Yale University Press and Foreign Language Press
All right reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-300-09201-1

Contents

Acknowledgements............................................................ixTranslator's Note on the Chinese Text.......................................xIntroductionsDang Shengyuan..............................................................xiJohn Makeham................................................................xxix1 Ordering Learning.........................................................32 Establishing Models and Exemplars.........................................173 Cultivating the Fundamental...............................................314 The Way of Humility.......................................................515 Valuing Proof.............................................................616 Valuing Words.............................................................737 The Fundamental Principles of the Arts....................................858 An Examination of Disputation.............................................979 Wisdom and Deeds..........................................................10510 Titles and Emoluments....................................................12111 Examining Falsity........................................................13512 A Rebuke of Social Connections...........................................15313 Astronomical Systems.....................................................17514 Distinguishing Between Premature Death and Longevity.....................18715 Attend to the Fundamentals...............................................20516 Examining the Selection of High Officials................................21917 Be Careful of the Advice One Follows.....................................23518 Destruction of the State.................................................24919 Rewards and Punishments..................................................26520 Population Figures.......................................................27121 Reinstitute the Three-Year Mourning Period...............................27722 Regulate the Allotment of Corve Laborers................................283Notes.......................................................................291Bibliography................................................................343Index.......................................................................357

Chapter One

Ordering Learning

Like a number of Confucian writings edited in the Han dynasty, Discourses opens with an essay on the importance of learning. Other books in this tradition include the Analects, Xun Qing's (c. 335-c. 238) Xunzi, Yang Xiong's (53 BCE-18 CE) Fayan, and Wang Fu's (c. 90-165) Qianfulun.

Xu Gan's model curriculum for the aspiring gentleman (junzi) is based on a range of standard Confucian virtues and the six arts (liu yi), the cultivation of which is essential to the development of his virtue. In Mencius, although it is implicit that education plays a role in the development and refinement of a person's incipient moral tendencies, the more explicit claim is that innate moral tendencies sprout of their own accord without having to be learned (Mencius, 2A.6). Xu Gan, on the other hand, maintains that only through learning are people able to recognize that they have these "treasures" in their heart. The place that he gives to learning draws on the views presented in Xun Qing's essay "Exhortation to Learn." Xu Gan also stresses the importance of the teacher, commitment (zhi), the sagely models, and a willingness to be eclectic in one's approach to learning. Of particular interest in this essay is his critique of the two main styles of commentary practiced by Han classical scholars: zhangju (section and sentence) and xungu (glossing of old terms). Xu Gan rejects the pedantic philological concerns of the Han scholiasts who had concentrated on the written word at the expense of the message behind it, seeking instead to elucidate the "fundamental meaning" (dayi). For him, it was the original and essential meaning of the classics that was of foremost importance.

The gentleman of past times would perfect his virtue and establish good deeds through his conduct; when he died, his name would not be forgotten. What is the reason he was able to do this? Learning! Learning is the means to channel one's spirit, to be penetrating in one's reflections, to be at ease with one's emotional responses, and to order one's innate tendencies. Learning is the highest undertaking of the sage.

At the beginning of their lives, people are ignorant, not yet possessing understanding. Take the analogy of some valuables inside a dark room; although they are sought after, they cannot be seen. If daylight illuminates the room, however, then all the things therein can thereby be discerned. Learning is the daylight of the heart. For this reason the former kings established teaching officials, making them responsible for educating the sons of the ruler's kinsmen and high officials. They instructed them in the six virtues: wisdom, humaneness, sageliness, rightness, balance, and harmony; in the six types of virtuous conduct: filial respect, friendship, maintaining harmony with one's nine degrees of relatives, being close to one's in-laws, trusting one's friends, and commiserating with the sufferings of others; and in the six arts: ritual, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and arithmetic. With these three teachings in place, the human way is complete.

Learning is like an adornment. If a vessel is not adorned, then there will be no way for it to be beautiful to contemplate. Similarly, if one does not learn, then there will be no way for one to be endowed with exemplary virtue. Being endowed with exemplary virtue thus enables the bonds of human relationships to be put in good order; being beautiful to contemplate, the vessel can thus be used to make offerings to the spirits of heaven and earth. Accordingly the Book of Documents says: "It is just like fashioning something from catalpa wood; when the bark has been chopped off and the raw wood exposed, then some red lacquer should be applied." It is only after hearing the sound of the yellow bell pitch pipe that one realizes how thin the sound of an earthenware pot is; and it is only after seeing the dragon design on the ritual vestments of the emperor and senior officials that one realizes how coarse a hemp cloak is. Similarly, it is only after making one's way through proper schooling that one realizes the hindrance caused by not learning. Learning is thus like climbing a mountain: as one moves the higher one ascends. It is also like sleeping: as time passes the more one is satisfied. If one looks back to where one came from, it seems hazy in its remoteness. It is mistaken and wrong to slacken off should learning become difficult. The Book of Odes says: "The high mountains, I look up at them/ The high road, I travel it." This is what is meant by a love of learning.

One will be more certain of arriving if one travels swiftly rather than just standing there in a slump, thinking how far one still has to go. One will be more certain of catching a bird if one tracks down the female [on her nest], rather than craning one's neck to gaze up at birds flying in the air. Similarly, one will be more certain of reaching one's goal if one applies oneself to learning rather than residing in solitude, hoping for wisdom. Therefore, so as not to be distracted in his heart by idle wishes, it is necessary that the gentleman pursues learning; so as not to be careless in his personal behavior, it is necessary that he follows a teacher; and so as not to utter baseless comments, it is necessary that he listens widely to others. In this way, his emotional responses and his nature will accord favorably with others, and so his reputation will be passed on. Confucius said: "If one does not learn, how can one act? If one does not reflect, how can one achieve? Mark these words, my disciples!" This is what is meant by learning from others!

Even if a horse is fleet of foot, if it is not trained to pull a carriage then it is not a good horse. Likewise, even if a man has a good natural endowment yet does not practice the way, then he will not become a gentleman. Learning is thus seeking to practice the way. In some respects it is like painting with colors. When the black and yellow have been applied, the pure whiteness of the original surface disappears. Although only covered and not changed, yet who can tell what the original color is? Zixia said: "If one practices daily, then one will not forget what one has learned; if one forces oneself to be diligent, then one will not fall by the way. If one often listens to the great teachings of the world, then, increasingly, one's vision shall be broadened." Hence, in matters of learning, the gentleman is unremitting in his efforts, just like the movements of heaven above and the motions of the sun and moon. He perseveres throughout his life, stopping only when he dies. Thus even if he had natural ability, he would still be unable to succeed in applying it to good effect if he lacked the requisite commitment. Commitment is the commander of learning, while ability is the foot soldier of learning. In learning, one does not worry about a lack of ability but rather that one's commitment is not steadfast. It is because of this that although those who are engaged in learning are legion, there are only a few who actually learn. The gentleman must, therefore, be steadfast in his commitment. The Book of Changes says: "The gentleman untiringly strengthens himself."

The creation of a great work of music is not the product of just one note, and the harmonious blend of a fine dish is not the product of just one flavor. Similarly, a sage's virtue does not just draw on one way. Thus it is said that "learning is the means whereby the multitude of ways are brought together." When the multitude of ways are combined in one's heart, then the multitude of teachings will be united in one's speech. It is then up to the individual how he uses this learning. If he goes forth, there will be greatness and endurance; if he stays put, there will be benefit and stability. If he is silent, he will establish an image; if he speaks, his words will form a pattern. He will be able to describe events that occurred more than one thousand years ago as though he were living at the same time, and discourse on the differences between particular types of customs as though he were in the same room as the practitioners of those customs. He will be able to fathom the reasons underlying both the obscure and the evident, as though seeing into the true conditions of things. He will be able to trace the gradual development of order and chaos as though their orientation had already come to be realized. Therefore, the Book of Odes says: "Through learning, one will advance energetically to enlightened understanding." This is what is meant.

If one reflects in solitude, one will remain blocked and hence fail to comprehend. If one acts in isolation, one will be impeded and so fail to achieve. The human heart must have clarity and illumination in it. Then, like a fire fanned by a breeze, it blazes brightly, or like water moving downward, it flows swiftly. This is why Tai Hao was able to draw the eight trigrams only after observing heaven and earth; why Sui Ren was able to make fire with drilling sticks only after studying the seasons; why Emperor Xuan was able to harmonize pitch pipes only after hearing the song of the phoenix; and why Cang Jie was able to create writing only after observing the prints of birds. These are all examples of great sages' learning from the spirits of heaven and earth and expressing it in phenomenal categories.

Being unable to learn from the remote, the worthy learns from what is close at hand. For this reason, he takes the sages as his teachers. In the past, when Yan Yuan learned from the sage, Confucius, although he had heard only one point, he could infer the rest about a subject. Even Zigong could infer a second point after hearing one point. These are both examples of worthies who extended meanings by extrapolating on the basis of analogy, and who learned through assiduous reflection. Yet it is not only worthies who learn from sages; sages, too, learn successively from one another. Confucius followed on from Wen [r. 1099/56-1050] and Wu [r. 1049/45-1043], Wen and Wu from Cheng Tang, Cheng Tang from the lord of Xia, and the lord of Xia from Yao and Shun. Thus the Six Classics have been passed on successively from one sage to another. Although these men have gone, their way still exists. If students of today adopt this way with diligence, this will be enough for them to achieve illumination and so become widely accomplished.

In all matters of learning, it is the fundamental meaning which is of foremost importance; nomenclature is secondary. When the fundamental meaning has been revealed, the nomenclature will follow thereafter. The "broad learning" of the debased literati, however, is devoted to nomenclature, meticulous in its accounts of utensils and weapons, and painstaking in glossing old terms. They select "sections and sentences" for commentary yet are unable to capture the mind of the former kings by drawing together those matters which are fully revealed in the fundamental meaning. This is no different from a female scribe's intoning odes or a junior eunuch's passing on messages. Such a state of affairs thus has scholars toil in thought yet fail to understand the way, wasting days and months with no achievement. Thus, in selecting from whom he should learn, the gentleman needs to choose well.

Chapter Two

Establishing Models and Exemplars

This essay continues the theme of the gentleman's cultivation. Xu Gan attaches greatest importance to the first of the six arts, ritual. For the gentleman, the purpose of ritual is to enable him to cultivate his virtue and so act as a model for others to emulate. He argues that ritual behavior begins with one's demeanor, in particular one's countenance: "The countenance is the external side of one's tally. The external side of one's tally being rectified, therefore one's emotional responses and spontaneous tendencies will be properly ordered. One's emotional responses and spontaneous tendencies being in proper order, therefore humaneness and rightness will be maintained. Humaneness and rightness being maintained, therefore replete virtue is manifest. When replete virtue is manifest, one can be a model and exemplar [literally, an image]. This is what is known as a gentleman." The tally is a metaphor for the gentleman. His inner self, his heart, is the inner side of his tally, and his external appearance is the outer side of his tally. Each side should match the other. The gentleman's countenance, the external side of his "tally," works both in an inward and an outward direction. Inwardly a dignified countenance puts his emotional responses and spontaneous tendencies in order, thereby giving rise to the particular virtues of humaneness and rightness. As to the outward function played by the countenance, the existence of humaneness and rightness is said to lead to replete virtue in the heart which then becomes manifest on the gentleman's countenance and demeanor, his external tally. The manifestation of virtue on his countenance and in his demeanor in turn functions as a model for the edification of others. Xu Gan then proceeds to stress the need to maintain an awe-inspiring demeanor, to be cautious when alone, and to be careful about what one says and does. He cautions how a thoughtless jest or a careless action can cause others to lose their respect and reverence for the gentleman, thus resulting in his ruin. The essay concludes with a series of historical illustrations of the importance of observing ritual propriety by maintaining one's respectfulness.

It is by establishing models and exemplars that the gentleman is made. Of the various models and exemplars, none is more primary than preserving an upright countenance and taking care to maintain an awe-inspiring demeanor. For this reason, in the rites instituted by the former kings, gentlemen wore colored and patterned caps and garments so that they would stand out, and they dangled jade ornaments to sound their presence. The kings wanted it to be seen and heard that these men should be respected and dignified. How can one be lax in regard to such matters?

The countenance is the external side of one's tally. The external side of one's tally being rectified, therefore one's emotional responses and spontaneous tendencies will be properly ordered. One's emotional responses and spontaneous tendencies being in proper order, therefore humaneness and rightness will be maintained. Humaneness and rightness being maintained, therefore replete virtue is manifest. When replete virtue is manifest, one can be a model and exemplar. This is what is known as a gentleman.

The gentleman may lack investiture in even a scrap of land, yet the myriad people will respect him. He may lack the authority to mete out punishments, yet the myriad people will hold him in awe. He may be unable to provide musical entertainment, yet the people will all delight in him. He may lack the power to bestow titles and emoluments, yet the people will all regard him with affection. In all cases, the gentleman is able to achieve this by virtue of the same thing. Thus Confucius said, "A gentleman commands authority but is never fierce," and he is "Grand but never insolent." The Book of Odes says: "Careful of his awe-inspiring demeanor/He becomes a model for the people."

It has never been the case that a man can drop his awe-inspiring demeanor, dim his gaze, or be careless in his speech, and still expect the people to model themselves on one such as he. If no one takes him as their model, then there will appear those who are disrespectful toward him. When the small man is treated with disrespect, he puts the blame on other people. He despairs at his lowness, and yet does not know why it is so. How pathetic! Thus the Book of Documents says: "Even the wise, when not thinking, become foolish, and the foolish, by thinking, become wise."

That which human nature neglects is to pay attention to oneself when in obscurity. That which the emotional dispositions overlook is to pay attention to oneself when alone. Yet obscurity is the origin of the obvious, and solitariness is the starting-point of the manifest. So how can they be neglected and overlooked? For this reason, the gentleman is cautious when alone and vigilant when in obscurity. Even if he were in a secluded and concealed place, ghosts and spirits would not find the slightest fault with him. The Book of Odes says: "We beat down the pegs of the rabbit nets /And place them in the middle of the forest." This is what is meant by "abiding in solitariness."

(Continues...)

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Edition details

• Publisher: Yale University Press
• Publication date: 2002
• Language: English
• ISBN 10: 0300092016
• ISBN 13: 9780300092011
• Binding: Hardcover
• Number of pages: 366