Codes of Ethics in Tourism: Practice, Theory, Synthesis (Aspects of Tourism, 33) - Softcover

Fennell, David A.; Malloy, David

Softcover

ISBN 10: 1845410602 ISBN 13: 9781845410605

Publisher: Channel View Publications, 2007

Synopsis

With ethics fast becoming a mainstay in tourism studies and the tourism industry in general, this volume provides a timely and intensive look at the theory and practice of codes of ethics in tourism. While the book includes a broad overview of what has been done to date in tourism studies in the area of code development and implementation, it ranges much more widely to incorporate theoretical work from outside the tourism field. This interdisciplinary approach serves two essential purposes. First, it furnishes the study of tourism codes of ethics with a theoretical foundation, which up to the present has been lacking. Second, it affords tourism scholars the opportunity to investigate codes in tourism from a multiplicity of perspectives, with direct relevance to the industry at many levels.

About this title

About the Authors

David Fennell’s main focus of research is on tourism ethics and ecotourism. He has published widely in these areas, including books on Ecotourism (5th edition), Tourism Ethics (2nd edition), Codes of Ethics in Tourism, Tourism and Animal Ethics (2nd edition), and Sustainable Tourism: Principles, Contexts, and Practices. A major thrust of his research involves theory from other disciplines to gain traction on tourism’s most persistent problems. Fennell is the founding Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Ecotourism, is the editor of a Routledge book series on tourism ethics and is the editor of two Routledge Handbooks: Tourism and the Environment, and Ecotourism.

David Cruise Malloy, PhD, is a professor of applied philosophy in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Health Studies at the University of Regina, Canada. His primary research focus is in the realm of ethical decision-making, leadership, and ethical climate in healthcare and organisational contexts. Malloy's research is funded by both the Social Science & Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Institutes for Health Research. He has authored numerous articles in ethics and ontology. This is his fourth text.

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.

Codes of Ethics in Tourism

Practice, Theory, Synthesis

By David A. Fennell, David C. Malloy

Multilingual Matters

Copyright © 2007 D.A. Fennell and D.C. Malloy
All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-84541-060-5

Contents

Part 1: Context, 
Preface, 
Part 2: Calculative Thinking, 
1 Organisational Expressions of Ethics, 
2 Surveying the Tourism Landscape, 
3 Code Development and Compliance, 
Part 3: Meditative Thinking, 
4 Mapping the Theoretical Terrain of Ethics, 
Part 4: Synthesis, 
5 Codes-in-Action: Theory and Practice, 
6 Conclusion, 
Glossary, 
Appendix 1: San Martin de los Andes, 
Appendix 2: UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, 
Bibliography, 
Index, 

CHAPTER 1

Preface

Setting the Stage: Epistemology and Morality

Thinking and ethical behaviour may be a case of the chicken and egg or a game of cat and mouse – which comes first or who is chasing whom? It may be then open to debate whether the following should be the first or the last section in this text. We have chosen, for better or worse, to set the stage for codes of ethics by providing the reader with a brief discussion on thinking because, ultimately, we believe that the purpose of a code is to make individuals consider their actions in a philosophical manner. Specifically, we have chosen two powerful constructs developed by the German philosopher, Martin Heidegger. The implications of these two philosophical tools for the way we perceive and, as a result – perhaps – the way we behave, are significant and worthy of our attention.

A Discourse on Thinking

In his text entitled Discourse on Thinking, Heidegger (1966:45) states that we are in a 'flight from thinking'. He suggests also that we of the developed world, in which science is our guide and our god, would vehemently deny this assertion. We, the children of logic, research and empiricism, of efficiency, effectiveness and productivity, believe we are better thinkers in this day and age than any of the generations before us. Heidegger would agree that we are not in a flight from this kind of teleological or calculative thinking, as the evidence in terms of technological advances is overwhelming. Rather, our flight is from the meaning we ought to draw from our behaviour (i.e. meditative or reflective thinking).

Heidegger argues that not only are we 'in flight from thinking' but we are also without foundation in our thinking – our rootedness. Science may well be argued to be the foundation of our penchant for calculative thinking, but do we overlook that which underpins science? In other words, for what reason or meaning do we invest implicitly in science? Well, generally speaking we don't know the answer to this question and rarely do we ask for clarification. Such flights from introspection are legion when one considers other aspects of our daily existence. For example, our own basic happiness is profoundly misunderstood and elusive.

Calculative thinking

This kind of thinking involves much of what we take for granted in terms of logical and linear processing of information. Calculative thinking is the engine that drives planning, organising, computation, consequence, and the practical affairs of science, state, economics, and even tourism. People, animals, nature and the planet in general are perceived through the lens of calculative thought as resources for our consumption – they are valued for functionality. Calculative thought provides us with the intellectual means by which we are best able to exploit these resources. Thus mountains are valued for the skiing opportunities they provide, as well as for the raw materials that can be extracted from them – the mountains (and nature in general) are ours for the taking.

Meditative thinking

We are in flight from meditative thinking. Why? Well, it is perceived to be more difficult and less functional in an immediate sense than calculative thinking. Its difficulty, according to Heidegger, lies in its under use. Because we've been nurtured on the calculative process, the meditative skill is rather foreign to us – analogous perhaps to learning a new language.

Meditative or reflective thinking seeks to understand the meaning behind action. Its purpose is to enhance or to 'open the possibilities' of an individual's appreciation of the bigger picture (i.e. the horizon against which an object exists). By looking at an object's functionality without seeing its existence as part of a broader perspective is to fail to understand the object comprehensively – e.g. similar to Zen and the Art of ... (Pirsig, 1975). If I travel to the mountain and can appreciate its natural majesty (as well as its functionality), then my subsequent behaviour is better informed than had it been driven by calculation and exploitation.

The essential point here is that because we can create, extract, organise, and structure does not imply that we ought to if the implications of its use are unknown – a mindset articulated through the precautionary principle (see Fennell & Ebert, 2004). A classic example of this can be seen in the development of the nuclear bomb during the Second World War. Robert Oppenheimer, the so-called 'father of the A-bomb', became a vocal critic of the nuclear weaponry, presumably after he had realised its horrific potential for death and destruction. One might assume that he had been thinking in a calculative frame of mind as he developed the science behind the actual construction of the bomb in his laboratory. We might further assume that his calculative thinking gave way to meditative thinking once he witnessed the actual force of a nuclear blast in July 1945 at Los Alamos, New Mexico. It leaves one to speculate: if Oppenheimer had the skill of meditative thinking prior to his involvement in this project, would he have agreed to assist the American military in the first place?

Thinking and ethical behaviour

While it may be a significant leap of faith to suggest that what and how we think necessarily results in behaviour, leap we must. Calculative thinking is outcome driven as is the ethical school of thought known as consequentialism (to be discussed in detail in Chapter 4). In this school of thought, possible outcomes are calculated and the most efficient and effective option that will achieve the greatest good for the greatest number will be selected. This manner of ethical thinking is commonplace to most of us as it employs rational decision-making and democratic principles. However, can the calculation of the best outcome cloud the decision-maker's broader perspective? For example, it could be argued using consequential rationale that tourists should be allowed to come into physical contact with various rare fauna (e.g. penguins in Antarctica) regardless of the stress and potential damage this may create. The broader perspective missed by this activity is the backdrop of ecological sensitivity, the 'rights' of animals, etc.

Meditative thinking, on the other hand, implies the search for meaning. Thus our actions and our perceptions are judged against the backdrop of the broader horizon than the immediate context of frenetic activity. Ethical conduct is juxtaposed with notions of duty based upon tradition, culture and universality (i.e. deontology) or, as Heidegger would term, autochthony or rootedness. Therefore it is not the outcome of one's actions that is the criterion for goodness but rather the principle upon which the action or perception was based.

So, in my travels to the Antarctic, I assess the philosophical principles of ecotourism prior to my contact with flora or fauna. Against these concepts or this philosophical horizon, I select a behaviour and frame my perception of the ecology in which I am about to participate and I act. I then evaluate my action against these principles (i.e. view my action against the horizon of philosophical concepts) and judge the extent to which I have blended my calculative or discovery behaviour and my introspection of meaning.

The point

What we're attempting to convey here is that behaviour in the tourism context can occur without thought for its broader implication – this may in fact be the norm. Calculative thinking is short term, lacks grounding, and can have potentially serious and negative outcomes. On the other hand, behaviour that is logically grounded in philosophical rationale (i.e. well constructed codes of ethics) is much more apt to bring about positive outcomes for all stakeholders. This is the premise from which this book is written. Our intent is to provide the tools necessary to develop codes of ethics in tourism that will become the meditative horizon for tourist and practitioner behaviour.

The Problem

One of the realities of the present times is that we find ourselves enmeshed in a web of technology, communications and an international business agenda that has added significantly to the removal of borders and the virtual annihilation of time and distance (Hobsbawm, 1994). This has lead to an increasing intersection of cultures and economies that have contributed more to global homogenisation than heterogeneity. One of a growing number of problems with globalisation, the phenomenon that is barely 20 years old, is that while those who need money the least continue to prosper, a large percentage of the world's population still lives in relative poverty (Saul, 2005). For those companies that continue to rely on the resources and labour of the less fortunate, there is increasing pressure to make good in the face of mounting criticism – criticism that continues to come fast and furious in the face of public awareness vehicles (e.g. media) that deliver brand-damaging information at a rate never before seen (Mamic, 2004). In emphasising this point, one need only reflect on the repercussions to the senior directors of Enron and WorldCom at the turn of the century

One of the tangible outcomes that has emerged from the forces shaping globalisation over the last couple of decades is the emergence of corporate social responsibility, riding parallel with so many recent ethical transgressions, forcing multinationals (through investors, consumers and unions), to be more accountable in their practices. The face of this corporate conscientiousness is the code of ethics, what Barenberg (2004) calls a 'new form of workplace regulation', that sets forth workplace rights and standards and has become fully integrated into global production and supply chains. Although his terminology is largely heuristic, the parallels with other forms of standards (e.g. technical standards) are strikingly similar through the development of elaborate systems for planning, implementation, monitoring and revision of norms.

As one of the world's largest industries, involving millions of international and domestic travellers, tourism necessitates formal or informal interaction with a number of others with whom we don't regularly mix. These interactions are largely premised on profit and self-fulfilment – deemed the 'priority of pure profit' by Knowles et al. (1999) in reference to UK tour operators. While travel to new places allows for personal growth and satisfaction, especially from the tourist's vantage point, the underlying mechanisms that catalyse tourism (e.g. competition for resources, self-interest and profit) are often premised on the rational decision-making process inherent in calculative thinking. The impacts are most noticeable, at least by virtue of what is written in the tourism literature, on the lesser developed countries (LDCs) where corrective attention is greatly needed (Ahmed et al., 1994). The World Bank estimates that less than 45% of the money that tourists spend on vacation actually stays in local communities, with the figure as low as 10% in some of the LDCs (Amaro, 1999). These figures in translation mean that, 'It should be amply clear ... that today's form of tourism is highly exploitative and socially damaging. It is manifestly unethical and unjust to foist it on traditional communities' (D'Sa, 1999: 65–66).

By all accounts such interactions are going to be far more numerous. Travel Wire News reported in early November of 2004, on information for the World Tourism Organisation (now known as the United Nations World Tourism Organisation, or UNWTO), that tourism grew by about 10% in 2004, corresponding to an estimated 65 to 70 million more arrivals (Travel Wire News, 2004). This is attributed to three relatively weak years preceding 2004 and the pent-up demand from the global events of 2001 through to the SARS outbreak of 2003. The record growth is comparable to 20 years ago, when the early 1980s were marked by a weak economy due to the second global oil crisis. Such is the magnitude of the tourism industry that continues to demonstrate a vibrant resiliency over the long term. Travel is now very much part of the fabric of life, both recreationally and commercially, especially for those in the Western world.

As a privileged and accepted aspect of our lives – privileged in the sense that many in the world simply cannot afford to travel – there is a certain prestige and entitlement that comes packaged with travel. As Wheat (1999) contends, because we so look forward to our yearly two-week holiday and the hedonistic trappings that go along with it, the last thing we want hanging around our necks is ethics. For example, with regard to sex tourism, including the propensity to sunbathe naked on the beaches of Eastern societies, Seabrook and Burchill (1994) write that, like money and fun, it is so desirable as an end in the West that it has emerged as the holy trinity at the heart of consumerism. While such tourists bare it all in the sun, they are said to be displaying not just their nudity but also a form of cultural bareness that strips away all but their senses, the authors note, which must be constantly stimulated and distracted. To show shock or revulsion at this hedonism can only be the sign of archaic prudishness, antiquated moralism and the denial of reality.

Przeclawski (1996) has suggested that freedom has always been an important constituent of tourism. Travellers are free from the bonds of work and home, they can go wherever they wish, they can do as they please in these places, and can be free to cast off the moral cloak that regulates their behaviour in everyday life. However, according to Przeclawski, this freedom is the freedom 'from' something rather than the freedom 'for'. We should not take this distinction lightly, because it may very well be the key to overcoming the divisiveness that exists between two camps: those who see ethics and codes of ethics as a pious hope, and those who see them as a Trojan Horse (to borrow a familiar phrase). The 'ethics as Trojan Horse' group is represented by Wheeller (1994) and Butcher (2003); the latter feels that that the current trend towards the moralisation of tourism restricts our ability to enjoy the time we have away from the pressures at home. The moral authority of tourism is undeserved, because it is no more and no less a form of sustainable tourism than mass tourism, which is a popular criticism on the basis of extensive travel by air and little in the way of economic development in the hands of the people who need it most.

However, like the case of international business above, there is little denying what appears to be a wave of ethics and responsibility pervading the tourism industry, where operators and tourists alike appear to be clamouring for richer experiences. This finding is reported by Goodwin and Francis (2003) in their summary of the work of the UK-based organisation Tearfund group which found that, generally, ethical tourism adds value to tourism packages. It was also discovered that those operators seen to be more ethical gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace by securing long-term relationships. More specifically, according to the report 63% of respondents reported wanting information on at least one ethical issue at the destination; 52% said they would rather book a holiday with an operator if they had a code of ethics in 2001, compared to 45% who said this in 1999 (Goodwin & Francis, 2003). In the words of Weeden (2001), ethical tourism is now an established part of the tourism industry landscape, especially from the consumer demand standpoint, where tourists are starting to make decisions on the basis of the ethical credentials of operators on issues related to tour operator-host community relations, treatment of employees, product marketing, and operators' actions and attitudes towards the natural environment.

(Continues...)

Excerpted from Codes of Ethics in Tourism by David A. Fennell, David C. Malloy. Copyright © 2007 D.A. Fennell and D.C. Malloy. Excerpted by permission of Multilingual Matters.
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Edition details

• Publisher: Channel View Publications
• Publication date: 2007
• Language: English
• ISBN 10: 1845410602
• ISBN 13: 9781845410605
• Binding: Paperback
• Number of pages: 200