An Essential Guide to American Politics and the American Political System by Kenneth Hill clarifies many of the trends influencing American politics today. You will find in this book a clear analysis of the underlying structure of the American political system, emerging trends, and enduring problems. The book analyzes both continuity and change in American politics and the interaction between the two. Voters, to take one example, now have multiple sources to gather and evaluate political information. The result is often confusion rather than better understanding. Policies adopted by nations around the world now impact the American voter in both positive and negative ways. The policies of other nations now in part determine rates of employment in the United States. The question of equality and equal opportunity has become increasingly controversial as the gap between social classes continues to widen. Much more than in the past, more Americans are now questioning the ability of the American political system to successfully deal with current challenges. Americans are losing confidence in their leaders and institutions. The optimism that has long been a characteristic of the American people is vanishing as problems go unsolved often because of petty political differences. Our two political parties no longer produce the leaders they once did. Kenneth Hill's book is an essential guide to better understand the challenges confronting the American political system--and the possibility of success or failure.

An Essential Guide To American Politics And The American Political System

By Kenneth L. Hill

AuthorHouse

Copyright © 2012 Kenneth L. Hill
All right reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4772-4916-1

Contents

Declaration Of Independence..............................1Congress.................................................39Judiciary................................................53Political Parties........................................59Terms—Definitions—Events.....................63Primaries................................................161Wars In American History.................................197Foreign Policy Doctrines.................................215

Chapter One

Declaration Of Independence

The Declaration of Independence, approved by the continental Congress in 1776, declared the thirteen colonies to be free and independent of Great Britain's rule. The ideas in the document, authored by Thomas Jefferson, justified the revolution against unjust rule and has served as justification for revolutions in many places around the world ever since. The Declaration had several purposes. It explained why the colonists could not continue under British rule. Its message is that all governments are subject to restraints to prevent abuse of authority. Individuals have certain inalienable rights governments cannot take away and should not abuse. This claim remains valid today but some governments reject restrictions on their power. They behave as though there are no legitimate restraints. Jefferson's ideas are incompatible with non-democratic political systems that restrict or abuse fundamental freedoms. The Declaration was also a repudiation of certain laws put into place by George III including the Intolerable Acts, the Stamp Act, the Tea Tax, the Quartering Act, and others. The Declaration influenced the French rebels determined to curb the absolute power of the French government under the leadership of Louis XVI. When the French rebelled they often relied on many of the same slogans that inspired Americans to rebel against George III. A major purpose of the Declaration was to unify the colonists behind the cause of independence and to win foreign support as well. Foreign governments were unlikely to support a reform movement that simply wanted some changes in the way Great Britain ruled its colonies. The Declaration has lost none of its validity or relevance with the passing of time. It influenced President Wilson's Fourteen Points and President Roosevelt's speech in 1941 embracing the Four Freedoms. The Declaration influenced provisions of many international documents including the 1945 United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights approved by the United Nations in 1948. Many nationalist leaders in the Afro-Asian world relied on the Declaration after World War II to justify their fight for independence and an end to colonial rule. The independence of many colonies after the war was one of the major events of the twentieth century. The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution have distinct purposes. The Declaration justified the revolution. The Constitution deals with process, structure and the organization of the American political system.

TREATY OF PARIS

In 1783, American and British officials signed the Treaty of Paris ending the Revolutionary War. A year later Congress ratified the treaty negotiated by Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and James Madison. Great Britain recognized the independence of the thirteen states. The treaty consisted of ten articles dealing with items such as territorial boundaries, fishing rights, the payment of debts, property rights, the confiscation of property, prisoners of war, captured territory, and access to the Mississippi River. After completing the treaty, many disputes developed between the two countries because of conflicting interpretations regarding certain treaty provisions. Both sides were guilty of numerous violations. Individual states violated treaty provisions and there was little the national government could do to remedy the situation. Many Americans refused to pay debts owed to the British and many refused to return confiscated properties. The British government violated treaty provisions without fear of retaliation. The British refused to return captured slaves and failed to vacate some captured territories. Relations between Great Britain and the United States remained strained for many years after the war. The two countries resolved some of their conflicting interpretations of the Treaty of Paris when they signed the Jay Treaty in 1794. Despite the resolution of many of their differences, the two countries again went to war in 1812. Despite winning independence, there was no guarantee the union of thirteen states would endure and prosper. The new nation had to cope with many complex problems, both foreign and domestic. The leaders of the new nation soon realized that finding solutions to these problems would take time. In many ways the two sets of problems, foreign and domestic, were connected and this made the search for solutions more difficult. U.S. ties to Great Britain were complicated by the fact that many Americans were ambivalent about relations with Great Britain after the Revolutionary War. Some Americans favored a closer relationship but others were more comfortable with closer ties to France. George Washington supported a policy of neutrality. He did not want the United States too closely aligned to the policies of any European state. The Treaty of Paris left the United States the ruler of all the territory east of the Mississippi. George Washington envisioned the United States a great power without rivals other than some Indian tribes.

CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1774-1789

The Continental Congress convened in 1774. It was a unicameral body meaning it was composed of only one house. All the states except Georgia sent representatives to the Congress that had a membership of fifty six members, each selected by their state legislature. Members of the Congress had to decide how to respond to the actions taken by the British government in response to Boston Tea Party. The Continental Congress ruled the country during a time of uncertainty and had to cope with many complex problems without having adequate power to do so effectively. It did institute a boycott of British goods and this contributed to the decision on the part of the British to deal more harshly with the colonies. Initially, delegates to the Congress did not intend to seek independence from Great Britain but they did demand changes in the way the British government dealt with the colonies. King George III did not think it was necessary to appease the colonists and this convinced many members of the Continental Congress that independence was their only option. In 1775, King George III formally accused the colonies of rebellion. That same year, the Second Continental Congress convened and was responsible for conducting the war for independence that had already begun. Military clashes between the two sides spread throughout the colonies. In 1776, the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. There was much support for such a declaration because delegates to the Congress did not think they could win any international support without it. Foreign governments would have no incentive for supporting a rebellion if the only goal of the colonists was to win political and economic reforms. The leaders of the revolution had to determine how to govern the new country. They completed that task in 1777, when the Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation that established a new political framework to govern the United States. The states approved the Articles in 1781. The Congress dissolved in 1789 when the states ratified the new Constitution.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

In 1777, the Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation consisting of thirteen articles. They became operative in 1781 after all thirteen states gave their approval. They remained in force until 1789. The Articles spelled out how the new government would function and reflected the fact the colonists had just rebelled against the authority of King George III. The thirteen states needed a legitimate government to conduct relations with other governments around the world but the authors made certain the national government did not have more power than they thought was necessary. The Articles served as a constitution for the nation as a whole but individual states were also writing constitutions for the conduct of their own affairs. This was unusual because at that time, most countries, including Great Britain, did not have a written constitution. The authors of the Articles shared the fear most Americans had of executive power at the national level and therefore made no provision for an executive such as a president, a king, or a prime minister. Not only did the Articles limit the power of the national government, they also conferred sovereignty on each of the thirteen states. They were for all practical purposes independent of each other. All thirteen states had to approve the Articles before they became operative. They all gave their approved and welcomed the fact that the national government was granted few powers. A weak national government was unlikely to abuse its powers because the Articles granted so few powers to the national government. In many respects, the states viewed each other as rivals. During the colonial period, many of the colonies had closer relations with Great Britain than they had with each other. They relied on the British government for their well-being and protection. They were a part of the British colonial empire with all the advantages that entailed. Being part of a great empire had many advantages but most of these were lost when the colonies became independent.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Under the Articles of Confederation, the national government had no executive office such as a president or a prime minister. The national government could deal with state governments but could not deal directly with people within the states. This inability to deal directly with its citizens is what differentiates a confederation from a federal or a unitary government. The victorious colonies, mindful of the abuses of George III, intended to limit the power of the national government. The Articles effectively accomplished that objective. When the national government wanted to raise funds, it did so by asking states to provide the money. The states would then decide whether to comply or ignore the request. The national government could not directly tax the citizens and therefore had to rely on the state governments. The same was true for military service and many other tasks the national government needed to perform. The national government would ask each state to provide X number of people for military service but states need not comply. The refusal of some states to meet their obligations encouraged others to do the same. Most states failed to honor some of their obligations and there was no penalty for doing so. The national government did have certain powers that theoretically did not require the approval of states but often did require their cooperation and this enabled the states to compromise the powers of the national government. These powers included such things as the power to coin money, negotiate treaties, and exchange diplomatic personnel, including ambassadors. Problems arose, however, when some states issued their own currencies and interpreted treaties as they saw fit. States frequently bypassed the national government and negotiated directly with foreign governments. What was significant about the Articles was not the power granted to the national government but the powers denied. The central government could print money but it had little if any value because there was nothing to back up the value of the currency. This weakness had a major impact on trade with other countries and trade between the states. Some states issued their own currency. The currencies they issued had the same problem as did the national currency—there was nothing to back up its value. After the Revolutionary War, the debt burden of the national government was a major problem because it did not have adequate funds to repay its debts. Many of the Founding Fathers believed paying the debt was a national priority for reasons of prestige, honor, and economic necessity. Treaties negotiated by the national government were also a problem because ratification needed the approval of all thirteen states. Foreign governments did not want to negotiate treaties with the United States because of the approval process and the inability of the national government to guarantee adherence to treaty provisions, once approved. Foreign governments were more interested in exploiting the weakness of the United States rather than cooperating with it. Some states also had their own foreign policy thus making it difficult for the national government to deal with foreign powers. The national government simply did not have the power or authority to do what people ordinarily expect the government to do including such things as raising an army, paying debts, and maintaining order. Amending the Articles to give the national government more power was difficult because all thirteen states had to agree to any amendments. Getting all the states to approve provisions to strengthen the authority of the national government was a daunting task. States were reluctant to yield any power to a higher authority.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: STATE POWERS

After winning independence, the United States was composed of thirteen states. Each state had one vote in the national legislature regardless of its geographical size or population. The states retained all powers not expressly granted to the national government. The Articles permitted each state to be sovereign, free, and independent but unlike sovereign nations, states could not send or receive ambassadors from foreign countries. The Articles did not grant the national government many powers. The vote of nine states was necessary to pass legislation but amending the Articles required a unanimous vote, as did ratification of treaties. During the period of the Articles, the need for unanimity nullified the amendatory process thus making it difficult to correct weaknesses at the national level to better govern the country. Each of the thirteen states controlled most of its own affairs but that left each of them weak and vulnerable to foreign powers. Individual states confronted many problems similar to those the national government had to confront. The states had huge debts and were unable to pay their bills or meet expenses. Most had severe economic problems generating considerable discontent because state governments could do little to ease poverty or promote prosperity. The result of government weakness at both the national and state levels threatened the well-being and future of the new nation. The revolt against British authority was successful but this did not mean the newly created nation could do what its subjects expected. There was a growing recognition that the national government needed additional powers to cope with its many problems. The question was how to grant the national government more power without threatening the sovereignty of the states. This was the dilemma. After the American Revolution and the adoption of the Articles, states jealously guarded their sovereignty. They fought the revolution to limit the power of government and were determined to limit the power of the new government established after the revolution. The authors of the Articles delegated to the national government relatively few powers and those often needed the cooperation of states for their implementation. The conflict between those individuals supporting or opposing a stronger national government continued throughout the period of the Articles of Confederation, 1781-1789. The conflict continued throughout the Constitutional Convention and the debates for and against ratification of the Constitution. Disagreement about how much power the national government should have has remained a characteristic of American politics right up until the present time. The rise of the Tea Party after the 2010 congressional elections renewed the debate. A primary purpose of the Tea Party was to limit the power of the national government.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ECONOMIC ISSUES

During the period of the Articles of Confederation, 1781-1789, the country faced numerous economic problems the national government was unable to cope with because of inadequate powers. Some of the problems confronting the government after winning independence included the inability to raise money, difficulty paying debts, inability to tax people directly, and a weak military inadequate to protect the nation's national interests. The country no longer enjoyed the advantages of being a British colony. The national government had insufficient power to deal with conflicts between the states or conflicts between the states and the national government. There were navigational disputes between and among the states that hampered interstate commerce. The national government did not control interstate commerce and this failure allowed states to discriminate against each other and they often did. They did so to benefit people within the state regardless of the adverse effects such policies had on other states. Individual states had to pay high tariffs to have their goods enter foreign markets. States did not have much bargaining power when dealing with foreign governments because each state negotiated for its own benefit. Foreign governments often practiced a policy of divide and rule. The United States lacked a strong stable currency and this also hampered trade with other countries. Not only did the national government have major economic problems, the states did also for many of the same reasons. The expectation that freedom would bring economic prosperity proved false. Economic problems were so severe as to threaten the very existence of the confederation. Winning the revolution did not bring the benefits many thought it would.

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