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The study of government and politics is enhanced by the use of an analytic approach with which to explain relationships and behavior. No single approach is necessarily the best or the most definitive, nor does any single approach satisfactorily explain all aspects of U.S. government. By using an analytical approach, however, one acquires a consistent understanding of the relationships among actors and institutions, and an explanation for outcomes and policy results. Listed below are the major categories to consider when examining U.S. government and politics. Keep in mind that these are not commensurable variables. 1. Actors are individuals or groups that seek to obtain goals through political activity and policymaking. 2. Interests are the values that people hold. These might be economic, social or philosophical, or political values. These fuel the actions and efforts of actors in politics. 3. Institutions involve the formal organizations that exercise political power. Congress, the president, the courts, and the bureaucracy are all institutions that develop and implement public policy, as formally outlined in the Constitution. Less formal institutions also play a significant role in government and politics. These include political parties, interest groups, and the mass media. Considered to be linkage institutions rather than formal, governmental institutions, they focus on the accomplishment of a goal in the political system, in that they convey citizens' interests to government. 4. Processes are the steps that various actions, that is, policy proposals, must go through to approach formal public policies. This is the way the policymaking institutions formally consider policy proposals. 5. Outcomes are the actual results of these components. Outcomes may be in the form of an adopted formal policy, or they may be no action and a continuation of the status quo. Their impact and consequence on policy are an important feature of politics and government. Various analytic perspectives could explain U.S. government and politics. Each may contribute to understanding, though none is a completely adequate or satisfactory perspective. Government involves the institutions and processes by which public policies are made for a society. Politics is connected to questions of who gets what, when, and how. Politics produces an authoritative allocation of values in our society. Elitism is based on the idea that political decisions and power are controlled by a small elite of powerful, often rich, individuals. This perspective posits that society is divided along class lines, based on wealth and tradition, and upper-class elites rule, regardless of whatever else appears to be taking place. Pluralism posits that policy is the product of group conflict and that the public interest tends to emerge from competing individual and group claims as they bargain and compromise. No single interest can dictate the outcome; people must compromise or form coalitions in order to attain their goals. Hyperpluralism is an extreme form of pluralism. A hyperpluralistic government is so fragmented, and pressures from competing interest groups are so diverse, that very little gets done. The result is often gridlock. The political system provides a "systemic" view of relationships between individuals, interests, institutions, and policy decisions. It explains politics in terms of: ? inputs (the demands and supports from individuals or intermediate groups); ? processing of these inputs by the formal institutions of government; ? outputs (the policies set forth by the government); and ? feedback (from outputs to the actors). Power is the ability to cause others to modify their behavior. It is a constant feature of government and politics, though power is quite unevenly distributed among actors and institutions. This perspective views actors and actions in terms of what interests possess what power, and how that power influences governmental actions. A political culture underlies the behavior of Americans and the values they have within the political system. These values serve as the context in which politics takes place, and though they are not homogeneous across the country, there is a degree of uniformity that underlies most political actions and behavior. Key Terms and Concepts aristocracy A system of government in which control is based on rule of the highest class. capitalism An economic system based on individual and corporate ownership of the means of production and a supply-demand market economy. communism A political, economic, and social theory based on the collective ownership of land and capital and in which political power lies in the hands of workers. conservative One who believes in and supports the typically traditional values of conservatism, and who resists change in the status quo. democracy A system of government placing the ultimate political authority in the people. Derived from the Greek words demos (the people) and kratos (authority). direct democracy A system of government in which the people, rather than elected representatives, directly make political decisions. This system is probably possible only in small political communities. free market economy The economic system in which the invisible hand of the market regulates prices, wages, and production. gridlock A situation in which government is incapable of acting on important issues often because of divided government. indirect (or representative) democracy A system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf. liberal A person slightly to the left of the center of the political spectrum who believes that change is good. Today's liberals tend to believe that the government has a role in preserving individual freedoms and equality, and in solving social and economic problems. libertarian One who favors a free market economy and no governmental interference in personal liberties. majority rule The central idea of governance in which only policies that have the support of a majority of voters will be made into law. minority rights Protections that guarantee that the minority will not be destroyed because they favor policies or actions different from the majority. monarchy A form of government in which power is vested in a monarch, an hereditary king and/or queen. oligarchy A form of government in which the right to participate is limited to those who possess wealth, social status, military position, or achievement. personal liberty A fundamental characteristic of democracy in the United States that protects individuals from government intrusion or interference. political culture Political beliefs and attitudes concerning government and political process held by a group of people, such as a community or nation. political ideology The collectively held ideas and beliefs concerning the nature of the ideal political system, economic order, social goals, and moral values. politics The method in which decisions are made, either by or for a society, to allocate resources, distribute benefits, and impose costs. Politics is a difficult term to define and has been summed up in many ways, including: "the art of the possible," the "authoritative allocation of values," "who gets what, when, and how" in a society, and "the competition among individuals and groups over the allocation of values or rewards." popular consent The idea that government must draw its powers from the governed or the people who are sovereign. popular sovereignty A principle originating in natural rights philosophy that claims political authority rests with the people and not the government. People have the right to create, change, or revolt against their government. In practice, people usually choose representatives to exercise their political authority. republic A government in which ultimate sovereignty belongs to the people, and the people elect officials to represent them in government decisions. social contract A basic tenet of liberal democracy that people are free and equal by natural right and therefore people give their consent to government. Advocated by John Locke and reflected in the Declaration of Independence. socialism A political philosophy that supports government control of markets and production as well as government determination of peoples' needs for social and economic benefits. totalitarianism A philosophy of politics that advocates unlimited power for the government so that it controls all sectors of society. Multiple-Choice Questions 1. All of the following characteristics are features of the pluralist analytic perspective except I. A multiplicity of institutional access points II. A diverse and numerous set of actors with competing policy objectives III. Changing coalitions of actors IV. A single process for making policy outcomes A. I and II B. II and III C. III and IV D. III E. IV 2. Political participation is an essential element of all of the following approaches except A. the political system. B. elitism. C. pluralism. D. power. E. hyperpluralism. 3. The value or importance of an analytic framework in understanding politics and government is that A. it predicts results of the process. B. it explains all dimensions of politics and government. C. it encompasses all the variables that might account for policy outcomes. D. it provides a comprehensive and systematic perspective of politics. E. it results in the disclosure of truth. 4. Initiatives and referenda are examples of A. direct, popular government. B. Republicanism. C. political party control. D. oligarchy. E. indirect democracy. 5. Popular sovereignty can be defined as A. translation of legislation into a set of government programs and policies. B. the level of popular support that presidents enjoy from approval surveys. C. the influence that public opinion polls have in deciding policy questions. D. the right of the majority to govern themselves. E. the idea that governments draw authority from the governed. Essay Questions 1. List three variables that pluralism uses to explain politics. Then, list three variables that elitism uses in explaining politics. Compare and contrast these two approaches in terms of democratic policy making. 2. Select one approach below and identify at least three strengths and one weakness it has for studying government and politics. ? Elitism ? Pluralism ? the Political System ANSWER KEY Multiple-Choice Questions 1. E 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. D Essay Questions 1. Variables that could be listed for the pluralist approach to explaining politics include: ? Many interest groups with specialized or narrow interests ? Competition among interests for governmental attention ? A number of policy making institutions ? Various processes for influencing policy making Elitist variables might include: ? Powerful, concentrated policy makers, usually based on economic power ? Members of the elite are strongly and actively engaged in politics as well as ideologically committed to their interests ? Elite members may or may not occupy elected positions in order to control policies ? There are interlocking connections among the members of the elite so the same actors appear in various policy making contexts The question does not specify the number of comparisons and contrasts required, so a general statement of comparison and contrast is probably sufficient. Comparisons: 1. Both approaches provide a comprehensive perspective for explaining politics and policy results. 2. Both approaches tie institutions to actors and to results (policies). Contrasts: 1. Pluralism is a more complicated explanation for policy outcomes than is elitism: pluralism involves more actors, and both winners and losers, and they cannot be easily predicted by pluralists beforehand. 2. Elitism is a more simplistic approach to explaining politics because everything is the result of the presence of a controlling elite. 2. This question asks you to identify three strengths and one weaknesses of one approach. Make sure that you do precisely that, or your answer will be incomplete.
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