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v, [1], 96, [2] pages. Wraps. Illustrations. Tabular Data. Index. The cover has some wear and soiling. Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; however, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g. toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, and saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). Under this convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition known as the General Purpose Criterion). About 70 different chemicals have been used or were stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. The entire class, known as Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions, has been scheduled for elimination by the CWC. Among the topics addressed are Chemical Warfare, Chemical Agent, Military Training, Chemical Land Mines, Chemical Agents, Gas Mask, Protective Clothing, Shelter, Gas Alarms, Decontamination, First Aid, Tactical Protection. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses. Fritz Haber is considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I. Multiple international treaties were passed banning chemical weapons based upon the alarm of nations and scientists. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I. Chlorine gas, among other chemicals, was used by both the Allied and Central powers to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare. In most cases the gasses used did not kill, but instead incapacitated or caused permanent or temporary injuries. Historians have reached a wide range of estimates on gas casualties, ranging from 500k to 1.3 million casualties directly caused by chemical warfare agents during the course of the war, of which 2-4% died. A minimum of around 1300 civilians were injured due to the use of the weapons, and at least around 4000 were injured during weapon production. Gas casualties were a small fraction of the overall human impact of the war, but the horrifying effects of such weapons gave them a strong psychological impact. The interwar years saw the occasional use of chemical weapons during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War by the Italians, while the Japanese made use of chloroacetophenone to suppress a native rebellion in Formosa in 1930, and later made use of mustard gas, lewisite, and irritant agents during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Chinese, often lacking protective gear such as gas masks, were usually forced to retreat against CW attacks. Although significant effort went into the development and stockpiling of chemical weapons in World War II, they saw no battlefield use in the European Theater. Nazi Germany dedicated much research to the development of nerve agents, but never used them even during the final defense of the fatherland. It has been suggested that Adolf Hitler's own experience with poison gas during WWI and fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons were the main reasons. According to military historian Ian V. Hogg, the Germans were reluctant to use nerve agents since they couldn't find any defense or antidote for them. They also feared that the ban on scientific journals about organophosphates in Britain meant that the Allies also discovered nerve agents. In reality, they were unaware of the G-series until an ammunition dump captured in April 1945 was examined, while the ban on scientific publications was meant to prev.
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